Three Types of Hedonism

Three Types of Hedonism: Psychological, Evaluative, Rationalizing

Hedonism is a broad category of philosophical though that encompasses any system that places “pleasure” as being the intrinsic good, or the only thing that is considered good by itself independent of all other things.

Hedonism is the philosophical principle that places pleasure and gratification as the intrinsic good. In other words, pleasure and gratification are the only things that can be deemed good by themselves independent of all other things.

There are three distinct types of hedonism differentiated by proponents of the doctrine that enjoyment is the good:

  1. Psychological Hedonism: Pleasure is the solitary possible purpose of desire or pursuit. This may be held on observational bases, or be thought to be dictated by the significance of ‘desire.’
  2. Evaluative Hedonism: Pleasure is what we are supposed to desire and pursue.
  3. Rationalizing Hedonism: Pleasure is the only object that makes a pursuit sensible.

References

The Golden Rule in the Great Cultures and the Great Religions

The Golden Rule Poster, Golden Rule in the Great Cultures and the Great Religions

The Golden Rule or the ethic of reciprocity is the definitive, all-encompassing principle for ethical behavior. In essence, this maxim states, “One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself” in the positive form and “One should not treat others in ways that one would not like to be treated” in the negative form, the latter called the Silver Rule. The utility of the Golden Rule is primarily in developing a framework of personal ethics, in forming a psychological outlook toward others, and not necessarily in directing behavior.

We find the Golden Rule in all the great cultures and the great religions of the world:

  • Golden Rule in Baha’i Faith: “Lay not on any soul a load that you would not wish to be laid upon you, and desire not for anyone the things you would not desire for yourself.” [Source: Baha’u’llah, Gleanings]
  • Golden Rule in Buddhism: “Treat not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.” [Source: Udana-Varga 5.18]
  • Golden Rule in Christianity: “In everything, do to others as you would have them do to you; for this is the law and the prophets.” [Source: The Bible, Matthew 7:12]
  • Golden Rule in Confucianism: “One word which sums up the basis of all good conduct….loving-kindness. Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.” [Source: Confucius, Analects 15.23]
  • Golden Rule in Hinduism: “This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you.” [Source: Mahabharata 5:1517]
  • Golden Rule in Hinduism: “Why does a man inflict upon other creatures those sufferings, which he has found by experience are sufferings to himself?” [Source: Tiruvalluvar, Tirukkural Verse 318]
  • Golden Rule in Islam: “Not one of you truly believes until you wish for others what you wish for yourself.” [Source: The Prophet Muhammad, Hadith]
  • Golden Rule in Jainism: “One should treat all creatures in the world as one would like to be treated.” [Source: Sutrakritanga 1.11.33]
  • Golden Rule in Judaism: “What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbour. This is the whole Torah; all the rest is commentary. Go and learn it.” [Source: Hillel, Talmud, Shabbath 31a]
  • Golden Rule in Native Spirituality: “We are as much alive as we keep the earth alive.” [Source: Chief Dan George]
  • Golden Rule in Sikhism: “I am a stranger to no one; and no one is a stranger to me. Indeed, I am a friend to all.” [Source: Guru Granth Sahib, p.1299]
  • Golden Rule in Taoism: “Regard your neighbour’s gain as your own gain and your neighbour’s loss as your own loss.” [Source: Laozi, T’ai Shang Kan Ying P’ien, 213-218]
  • Golden Rule in Unitarianism: “We affirm and promote respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part.” [Source: Unitarian principle]
  • Golden Rule in Zoroastrianism: “Do not do unto others whatever is injurious to yourself.” [Source: Shayast-na-Shayast 13.29]

Notes: Poster compiled by Paul McKenna for “Guidelines for Golden Rule” Workshop, published by Scarboro Missions, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

The Significance of the Golden Rule

Norman Rockwell Mosaic called Golden Rule at the United Nations

The Golden Rule describes a guide to a fundamental behavior and is taught in most major religious and moral traditions.

The Golden Rule has been articulated either positively as “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” (Matthew 7:12); or negatively, counseling that you not do to others what you would not wish them to do to you, as in the teachings of Confucius (“Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.”) or Hillel (“What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbour”).

The Golden Rule’s all-inclusive simplicity has invited innumerable belittling counter-examples. For example, should masochists impose their favorite annoyances on unsuspicious acquaintances? Nonetheless, such counter-examples and critiques the point of the Golden Rule. The Golden Rule was never proposed as a guide to practical choice unaided of all other principles of moral conduct and behavior. In fact, the Golden Rule alludes to nothing about particular moral and ethical considerations, nor does it validate specific moral principles, qualities, and ideals.

To be more precise, the Golden Rule has to do with a perspective philosophy that is indispensable to the exercise of even the most rudimentary morality: one of seeking to situate oneself in the position of those affected by one’s actions, in an attempt to counteract the natural tendency to ignore moral considerations and ethical short-sightedness.

The Golden Rule directs one to treat others with the compassionate considerations that one wishes to contend with (in the positive form,) and, in particular, not to perpetrate misfortunes on others that one would abhor to have inflicted on oneself.

The Golden Rule has long been thought fundamental. Therefore many moral philosophers have compared it to their own principles concerning moral choice and conduct.

  • Immanuel Kant, German philosopher In “Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals”, German philosopher Immanuel Kant dismissed the Golden Rule as inconsequential and too limited to be a universal law: “Let it not be thought that the trivial quod tibi non vis fieri, etc. [what you do not will to be done to you, etc.] can here serve as a standard or principle. For it is merely derived from our principle, although with several limitations. It cannot be a universal law, for it contains the ground neither of duties to oneself nor of duties of love toward others (for many a man would gladly consent that others should not benefit him, if only he might be excused from benefiting them). Nor, finally, does it contain the ground of strict duties toward others, for the criminal would on this ground be able to dispute with the judges who punish him; and so on.”
  • John Stuart Mill, English philosopher In “Utilitarianism”, English philosopher John Stuart Mill claimed that, “In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as you would be done by, and to love your neighbour as yourself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.”

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Tells Stories: Roundup of Hindu Parables

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886,) the eminent Hindu mystic of 19th-century India, used stories and parables to portray the core elements of his philosophy. The meaning of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s stories and parables are usually not explicitly stated. The meanings are not intended to be mysterious or confidential but are, in contrast, quite uncomplicated and obvious.

In the Hindu and other traditions of the major religions of the world, parables form the language of the wise for enlightening the simple, just as well as they form the language of the simple for enlightening the wise.

Recommended Books

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Tells Stories: Providence & God’s Will or The Parable of Raghuram and Lord Sri Rama’s Will

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886,) the eminent Hindu mystic of 19th-century India, used stories and parables to portray the core elements of his philosophy. The meaning of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s stories and parables are usually not explicitly stated. The meanings are not intended to be mysterious or confidential but are, in contrast, quite uncomplicated and obvious.

In the Hindu and other traditions of the major religions of the world, parables form the language of the wise for enlightening the simple, just as well as they form the language of the simple for enlightening the wise.

The Parable of Raghuram and Lord Sri Rama’s Will

Raghuram was a pious weaver. He was a devotee of Lord Sri Rama. He firmly believed that everything happens by the will of Lord Sri Rama. The sun shines, the rain falls, the wind blows, men walk, and fish swim – all by the will of Lord Sri Rama. If Lord Sri Rama’s will is not there, everything will come to a standstill. This was Raghuram’s strong faith.

Raghuram never forgot Lord Sri Rama. As soon as he got up early in the morning, he would repeat the name of Lord Sri Rama. After bathing, after offering Naivedyam (offering) to Lord Sri Rama, he would take his breakfast saying, “by the will of Lord Sri Rama.” Again, before starting weaving he would take the name of Lord Sri Rama. As he plied the shuttle, weaving the cloth, he would be chanting Lord Sri Rama’s name. He would take the woven clothes to the bazaar for sale. If someone asked him what the price of a particular cloth was he would say, “By the will of Lord Sri Rama, the yarn costs one rupee. By the will of Lord Sri Rama, my labor costs 50 paisa. By the will of Lord Sri Rama, the profit is 25 paisa. So the price of the cloth, by the will of Lord Sri Rama, is rupees1.75.”

Raghuram’s sincerity and simplicity would charm men and women. No one would bargain with him. They would pay him whatever he demanded. They were sure he would never overcharge them or cheat them.

After the sales were over, Raghuram would return home chanting Lord Sri Rama’s name all the way. He would have his food and go to sleep again taking the Lord’s name.

On one hot and humid day, Raghuram thought he would sit in the verandah of his home for some time. He was chanting ‘Ram, Ram’. A gang of robbers passed that way. They had burgled a rich man’s house. They had a big bundle, which contained lots of cash, jewels, and other valuable articles. They saw Raghuram sitting in the verandah. “Here is a hefty fellow. We can make him carry the heavy bundle. They put the bundle on his head and told him, “Walk with us, or else we shall trash you.”

Raghuram, without any protest, went with them carrying the heavy load. He continued chanting ‘Ram, Ram’ all the way. At the end of the street, three police officers were doing their beats. The robbers got frightened. They ran away.

Raghuram was left alone with the bundle on his head. He did not run away. He stood there chanting ‘Ram, Ram’. The police opened the bundle and discovered the loot. They were happy thinking they had caught the robber red-handed. They marched Raghuram to the police station. He was kept in the lock-up that night. Next morning the police produced Raghuram and the bundle before the Magistrate. They charged Raghuram with the robbery.

The news of Raghuram’s robbery charges quickly spread in the village. Men, women, and children rushed to the court in wonder. “How could he commit any robbery?” they speculated.

The Magistrate also had heard of Raghuram. He too could not associate robbery with this peaceful-looking weaver. However, the police had caught him with the bundle. Anyway, the Magistrate pondered, “I will not punish this man until I am sure he has committed the robbery. Let me ask him for his own explanation.”

The Magistrate asked the prisoner, “Tell the court what exactly happened.”

All the while, Raghuram was standing as if he was in another world. His lips were continuously moving, uttering ‘Ram, Ram’. No one who saw his face would think he was a criminal.

Raghuram now turned to the Magistrate and told him in a clear voice. “Your Lordship, by Lord Sri Rama’s will, I was sitting in my verandah. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, some robbers came that way, By Lord Sri Rama’s will, they put their bundle on by head and made me walk with them. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, there were some police officers ahead. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, the robbers ran away. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, the police arrested me, and kept in the lock-up. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, they have produced me before you. By Lord Sri Rama’s will, you want to punish me.”

Tears began to flow down the cheeks of the magistrate. This man was so utterly like a child. He had nothing to hide. He was not calculating or clever in the usual sense. His trust in God was absolute. He must be not punished but worshipped.

The Magistrate said in open court, “I am convinced this man is innocent. I discharge him. Let him be set free.”

Raghuram joined his palms before the Magistrate and told him, “By Lord Sri Rama’s will, you have set me free.”

The huge crowd assembled in the court shouted “Jai Ram, Victory to Lord Sri Rama.” They took him procession back to his home.

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa once said, “More are the names of God and infinite are the forms through which He may be approached. In whatever name and form you worship Him, through them you will realize Him.”

Recommended Books

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Tells Stories: The Vastness of God’s Creation or the Parable of the Frog in the Well

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886,) the eminent Hindu mystic of 19th-century India, used stories and parables to portray the core elements of his philosophy. The meaning of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s stories and parables are usually not explicitly stated. The meanings are not intended to be mysterious or confidential but are, in contrast, quite uncomplicated and obvious.

In the Hindu and other traditions of the major religions of the world, parables form the language of the wise for enlightening the simple, just as well as they form the language of the simple for enlightening the wise.

The Parable of the Frog in the Well

A frog lived in a well. It had lived there for a long time. It was born and brought up there. Moreover, it was a small little frog.

One day another frog that lived in the sea came upon the first frog. The frog of the well asked the newcomer, “Whence are you?”

The frog of the sea replied, “I am from the sea.”

The frog of the well questioned, “The sea! How big is that?”

The frog of the sea said, “It is very big.”

The frog of the well stretched its legs and questioned, “Ah! Is your sea so big?”

The frog of the sea said, “It is much bigger.”

The frog of the well then took a leap from one side of the well to the other and asked, “Is it as big as this, my well?”

“My friend,” said the frog of the sea, “how can you compare the sea with your well?”

The frog of the well asserted, “No, there can never be anything bigger than my well. Indeed, nothing can be bigger than this! This fellow is a liar, he must be turned out.”

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa concluded, “Such is the case with every narrow-minded man. Sitting in his own little well, he thinks that the whole world is no bigger than his well.”

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa once said, “If you first fortify yourself with the true knowledge of the Universal Self, and then live in the midst of wealth and worldliness, surely they will in no way affect you.”

Recommended Books

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Tells Stories: Omnipresence or The Parable of Ganesh and the Divine Mother

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886,) the eminent Hindu mystic of 19th-century India, used stories and parables to portray the core elements of his philosophy. The meaning of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s stories and parables are usually not explicitly stated. The meanings are not intended to be mysterious or confidential but are, in contrast, quite uncomplicated and obvious.

In the Hindu and other traditions of the major religions of the world, parables form the language of the wise for enlightening the simple, just as well as they form the language of the simple for enlightening the wise.

Once Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was asked why he did not lead the life of a householder with his wife. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa is supposed to have related the following story.

The Parable of Ganesh and the Divine Mother

One day, Lord Ganesh (son of Lord Shiva) happened to scratch a cat with his nail.

Upon returning home, Lord Ganesh observed that there was a mark of a scratch on the cheek of his divine mother, Goddess Parvati. Seeing this Lord Ganesh asked her, “Mother, how did you get this ugly scar on your cheek?”

Goddess Parvati, regarded in Hindu mythology as the Mother of the universe, replied, “This is the work of your hand; it is the scratch of your nail, Ganesh.”

Lord Ganesh asked in wonder, “How is it, Mother? I do not remember to have scratched you at any time.”

The Mother replied, “Darling, have you forgotten the fact of your having scratched a cat, this morning?”

Lord Ganesh said “Yes, I did scratch a cat, but how did your cheek get the scar?”

The Mother replied, “Dear child, nothing exists in this world but me. The whole creation is I; whomsoever you may hurt you only hurt me.”

Lord Ganesh was greatly surprised to hear this and then he determined never to marry. For, whom could he marry? Every woman was mother to him. Realizing thus the motherhood of woman, he gave up marriage.

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa concluded, “I am like Lord Ganesh. I consider every woman as my Divine Mother.”

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa once said, “A devotee who can call on God while living a householder’s life is a hero indeed. God thinks: ‘He is blessed indeed who prays to me in the midst of his worldly duties. He is trying to find me, overcoming a great obstacle — pushing away, as it were, a huge block of stone weighing a ton. Such a man is a real hero.'”

Recommended Books

Love of Parents and Love of God: Sense of Security

Love of Parents and Love of God Sense of Security

The sense of security is an indispensable need for emotional health. We need to feel secure on several practical dimensions: financial, physical, social, interpersonal, & emotional. We also need to feel secure at a much deeper level—this is called existential insecurity.

The question to ponder is, what is it that can make a person feel secure and protected in the world? Our parents have often been held responsible for developing it in us. The love of a father and a mother creates in the child the feeling of being wanted, filling the child’s world with warmth and loving kindness. In this manner is engendered the sense of security which we all need for a happy response to the rigorous demands of everyday living.

There is no uncertainty that parental love will add to the child’s feeling of security in the world, particularly for the very young child. Yet parental love is an inadequate anchor for emotional security. For our parents are worldly and mortal, and we are bound to lose them. And even while we have them, they do not always offer us enough anchorage in life, for as we grow in emotional and worldly perception, we comprehend that our parents are but finite creatures. We are limited in the resources of wisdom and strength with which to support our own lives. We need another love to bolster parental love if we are to have durable sources of security for living.

The love which time cannot undermine, and which is available to under-gird us in our need for feeling at home in the world, is the love of God. The Holy Quran (2:165) says, “Yet there are men who take (for worship) others besides God, as equal (with God): They love them as they should love God. But those of Faith are overflowing in their love for God.”

One who recognizes God’s love is psychologically prepared for the arduous business of living. For His sense of security is based on unwavering foundations. The Holy Bible says, “The steadfast love of God endures all the day” (Psalm 52:1.)

During what periods of your life have you felt secure and insecure? How have you learned to live with a certain degree of existential insecurity?

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Tells Stories: Thagya and Vairagya or the Parable of Akbar and the Fakir

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886,) the eminent Hindu mystic of 19th-century India, used stories and parables to portray the core elements of his philosophy. The meaning of Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa’s stories and parables are usually not explicitly stated. The meanings are not intended to be mysterious or confidential but are, in contrast, quite uncomplicated and obvious.

In the Hindu and other traditions of the major religions of the world, parables form the language of the wise for enlightening the simple, just as well as they form the language of the simple for enlightening the wise.

The Parable of Akbar and the Fakir

During the reign of the great Mughal emperor Akbar, there lived a Fakir (a Muslim ascetic) in a particular forest near Delhi. Many used to resort to the cottage of this holy man. However, he had nothing to show hospitality to these visitors. He was in need of some money for this purpose and went for help to Akbar Shah, who was well known for his kindness towards holy men.

Akbar Shah was then saying his prayers and the Fakir took his seat in the prayer room. In the course of his prayers, the Fakir heard Akbar ask, “O Lord, do Thou grant me more wealth, more power, more territories!”

At once the Fakir rose and was about to depart from the waiting room when the Emperor beckoned him to be seated again.

At the end of the prayer, Akbar asked the Fakir, “Sir, you came to see me. How is it then that you wanted to depart without saying anything to me?”

The Fakir said, “The purpose of my visit to your Majesty, I need not concern you with that.”

When Akbar repetitively pressed him to say what he wanted, the Fakir at last said, “Your Majesty, many people come to me to be taught, but for want of money I am unable to see to their comforts. So I thought it well to come to your Majesty for help.”

Akbar then asked why he was about to go away without having told him the purpose of his visit.

The Fakir replied, “Why should I go begging to a person who is himself a beggar? I had better beg of the Lord Himself, if indeed it is not possible for me to do without begging altogether.”

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay and initiated a religious school of thought that guided the formation of the Ramakrishna Order of monks that transformed into the Ramakrishna Mission under the leadership of his principle disciple Swami Vivekananda. Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa initially attracted several monastic and household disciples as a priest at the Dakshineswar Kali Temple.

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa once said, “To work without attachment is to work without the expectation of reward or fear of any punishment in this world or the next. Work so done is a means to the end, and God is the end.”

Recommended Books

Om Purnamadah: Peace Prayer on the Wholeness of Existence & the Vastness of Being

Here is a peace prayer (shanti mantra) from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of Hinduism’s sacred books, that is an appropriate paean to the wholeness of existence.

Om Purnamadah: Shanti Mantra, Peace Prayer

Om Purnamadah Shanti Mantra (Peace Prayer)

Om purnamadah purnamidam
Purnat purnamudachyate
Purnasya purnamadaya
Purnamevavashishyate
Om shanti shanti shanti hi

Translation

  • Purnam-Adah: “That is complete.” Here, ‘that’ could refer to everything that is not part of one’s perceived sense of self (self-identify.)
  • Purnam-Idam: “This is complete.” Here, ‘this’ could refer to everything that is part of one’s perceived sense of self (self-identify.)
  • Purnat-Purnam-Udachyate: “From one complete entity, another complete entity is born.” The first entity refers to the ‘that’ and the second entity refers to the ‘this’—the two aspects of outer and inner sense of self-identity.
  • Purnasya Purnamadaya: “When a complete entity is taken away from a complete entity …”
  • Purnameva-Vashishyate: “… what remains is also complete.”
  • Om shanti shanti shanti hi “Let there be peace.”

Wholeness of Existence Acceptance: Om Purnamadah: Shanti Mantra, Peace Prayer

Interpretation: Wholeness of Existence & Acceptance

In our relationships, when we engage with one another, if we feel we lack in something or the other person lacks in something, then the engagement will be a transactional one. The very nature of such engagement might cause expectations and might foster feelings, thoughts, and actions that are selfish in nature.

When we engage with each other with the understanding that no one lacks anything and a consciousness that others are whole regardless of mere appearances, then all the feelings, thoughts, and actions fostered by such engagements are complete and selfless.

All of us must be giving, and by being available for others, we do not lose anything and remain complete. At the same time, the other who is receiving does not become “more” for her or she already is complete and stays complete.